Dan Royer
Literature Review
EDAC 635
Dr. Bo Chang
Emotional Intelligence and Learning
There is no more central issue to education than thinking and reasoning (Peters, 2007) . Intelligence has been measured and quantified to determine an individual’s intellectual potential; however, the intellectual measurement alone did not predict the academic success of learners. The interest in Emotional Intelligence is a response to the demand for theories that allow for the integration of intelligence, personality, and the processing of emotional factors to successfully adapt to the environment (H.C. Janeke, A. Murphy, 2009) . This paper will explore some of the literature which evaluates the connection between Emotional Intelligence, its impact on thinking, learning and development.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is perceived in different ways by different theorists. Some see it as the ability to process emotional information cognitively, while others view it as a dispositional tendency similar to personality (H.C. Janeke, A. Murphy, 2009) . The range of theories includes those at one end of the spectrum which are purely concerned with the ability to cognitively process emotional information, and those on the other end which are blending together the cognitive with personality variables. A definition of EI is a trait or skill that assists people in adjusting and adapting successfully to their environments in a manner that allows them to interpret, manage and use their emotions and the emotions of others to effectively solve problems in a productive manner (H.C. Janeke, A. Murphy, 2009) . While that definition is accurate, it could also be refined to avoid the potential for some to read into it that emotional manipulation is a part of emotional intelligence.
The consideration of EI owes a great debt to Robert Sternberg, who developed the concepts of mental self government and thinking styles. The connection between EI and thinking styles is explained further as adaptability to different situations in social and interpersonal interactions. While it is suggested that people with a high degree of EI can adapt their thinking styles to the environment, a study of this connection was not complete prior to the study by Murphy and Janeke. The authors research this connection using the Thinking Styles Inventory and the Schutte Self-Report Inventory (H.C. Janeke, A. Murphy, 2009) . These instruments were selected for their internal consistency, the ability to test and retest with similar results, as well as their reliability established through a number of different studies. The study applied a regression analysis to the data obtained. The overall goal of the analysis was to determine whether the scores on the Thinking Styles Inventory subscales could predict overall Emotional Intelligence (H.C. Janeke, A. Murphy, 2009) .
Four factors were determined to be related positively with EI which were: optimism (self-motivation and positive emotions), social skills (dealing with emotions in social contexts), appraisal (recognizing, awareness and control over emotions), and utilization (active use of emotions with others) (H.C.Janeke, 2009). These four factors were connected to thinking styles as follows: 1) hierarchical, liberal and anarchical thinking styles were positively related to optimism, while judicial and monarchic styles correlated negatively to this factor; 2) the hierarchical and anarchic styles were positive predictors for social skills, while the oligarchic and conservative styles were negative indicators; 3) the hierarchical and legislative thinking styles were positive indicators for appraisal; and 4) the hierarchical, anarchic and external styles related positively to utilization (H.C. Janeke, A. Murphy, 2009) .
The authors acknowledge the weakness of this study is in the limitations which are inherent in self-reporting. Self-reporting is also subject to reporting bias and a person’s self-perception, rather than an objective measurement. It is also possible that other outside factors not considered link thinking styles with EI.
In a second study, researchers examined the relationship between EI, coping and exam related stress in a group of Canadian undergraduate students. This study focused on EI, which was assessed by self-reporting based on emotional self-perceptions (Elizabeth J. Austin, Donald H. Saklofske, & Sarah M. Mastoras, 2010) .
As the authors point out, this study is interested in the connection between EI and coping. In this particular study, the distinction is made between intrapersonal (internal) and interpersonal (external) Emotional Intelligence. The intrapersonal EI would assist the individual to better regulate their emotions and manage stress, while interpersonal EI would result in coping behaviors that would include seeking support from others. When applying EI to students, this paper reports that students with trait EI have a positive relationship to academic success and retention during their transition into higher education.
In this particular study the instruments used included the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) which allowed for the correlation between five EI subcomponents and coping. The ability to cope was evaluated using the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) which measures task-focused, emotion-focused, distraction and social diversion coping (Elizabeth J. Austin, Donald H. Saklofske, & Sarah M. Mastoras, 2010) .
Students were recruited from the University of Calgary and were assessed at the beginning of the semester using the inventories above. Additional surveys were used to identify; personality markers, positive and negative affect, perceived stress, and satisfaction with life. It was anticipated that the study would result in revealing the following: 1) Intrapersonal, Stress Management and General Mood components would be negatively related to emotion focused coping, 2) Adaptability, which includes problem-solving and flexibility, would be positively correlated to task-focused coping, and 3) the Interpersonal EI component would be a positive predictor of social diversion coping (Elizabeth J. Austin, Donald H. Saklofske, & Sarah M. Mastoras, 2010) . It was also expected that these factors would assist in the mediation between personality and stress.
This study expected that a relationship would emerge between EI and ability to cope with stress would emerge. This expected correlation did emerge. Emotion-focused coping had a negative correlation with the EI subscale factors of Intrapersonal, General Mood, and Stress Management. Task-focused coping related positively with Adaptability, and social diversion coping was associated with Interpersonal EI. In addition some relationships were identified which were not expected. For example task-focused coping was positively related to all EI components (Elizabeth J. Austin, Donald H. Saklofske, & Sarah M. Mastoras, 2010) . These results could also indicate that all people with high levels of EI are able to adopt a task-focused coping when needed. While the study did deal with the stress of coping with exams, it did not directly test its relationship to student success. However, the examination of the data did indicate that older students experienced less stress and scored higher on the Emotion Regulation factor. Ultimately Intrapersonal EI was found to be positively related to the success of students coping with exam stress. It is also indicated that personality traits are unlikely to change, however, developing emotion regulating skills could be used to assist students with differing levels of EI (Elizabeth J. Austin, Donald H. Saklofske, & Sarah M. Mastoras, 2010) .
A third study was conducted by Heeyoung Han and Scott D. Johnson from the Department of Medical Education, Southern Illinois University and the College of Education, University of Illinois respectively. As these authors observe in their introduction, emotional intelligence has been discussed as one of the important intelligences and competencies to promote and regulate personal intellectual growth and social relational growth (Johnson Scott D., Heeyoung Han, 2012) .
The study was conducted targeting graduate students enrolled in an online master’s degree program at a Midwestern university. A total of 81 students participated in the study and ranged in ages from 24 to 63, out of a total population of 188 students enrolled in the program (Johnson, 2012). The study was conducted to evaluate the connections between the three dimensions of the framework adopted to explain the connection between emotional intelligence, social bonding and online interactions.
This study utilized the Mayor-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, along with the Social Bonding Scales from the Wisconsin Youth Survey to measure the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Social Bonding. Additionally, the number, types and size of student messages for both synchronous and asynchronous online courses were used as an interaction variable (Johnson Scott D., Heeyoung Han, 2012) .
The results of the study indicated that students with higher emotional intelligence had a greater degree of social bond in the online learning environment. This connection was specifically noted for the bonding between peers; however, the same was not noted for an attachment to the school, program or instructor. The authors theorized that this might occur due to the limited functioning of Emotional Intelligence in an online environment. Another factor was offered as a potential explanation for the lack of influence; the bonding to the program and school may be based more on their degree of trust in the online program and the degree of learning and professional development provided, which would be independent of emotional attachment.
A second conclusion was that the ability to perceive emotions by facial expressions brings a greater amount of interaction in synchronous online discussions (Johnson, 2012). The drawback is that these interactions were not necessarily related to the topic. The study identified a relationship between the student interaction in a synchronous environment and academic success. However, the study also identified a negative association between Emotional Intelligence and the amount of interaction in this environment. It was suggested that this might be true because of the limited ability to perceive emotions and express them in an online learning environment.
A third and final conclusion was that stronger bonding between students produces more management type interactions in a synchronous online class. Additionally, the more students believe in the quality and effectiveness of the program, the more willing they become to manage and facilitate discussions during the synchronous sessions (Johnson Scott D., Heeyoung Han, 2012) .
This study concludes with the admission that the impact of Emotional Intelligence on the online learning experience requires further research. Relationships between Emotional Intelligence, bonding and online learning do exist in the online learning environment. It also suggests that an awareness of differing emotional intelligence styles used in different learning environments should be considered in the future. A third potential issue identified was that the lack of interaction does not necessarily mean that the student is not learning or listening. Finally, the authors recommend that future studies of the online environment consider the course structure in the asynchronous environment. It is possible; according to the authors that course structure may have a greater impact on the quality and quantity of online interactions.
Another article examines Emotional Intelligence as it relates to temperament, and environmental factors (family environment and childhood trauma). The basis for the article is that if EI can be measured, then it should be related to relevant developmental variables and EI abilities share common specific (Kathryn Jane Gardner, Pamela Qualter,and HelenWhiteley, 2011) .
The purpose of this study was to focus on three different goals: 1) to test whether or not temperament is more strongly related to trait than ability EI, 2) to determine whether environmental factors (family environment and childhood trauma) are more strongly associated with ability than trait EI, and 3) to explore significant interactions between temperamental and environmental factors (Kathryn Jane Gardner, Pamela Qualter,and HelenWhiteley, 2011) .
The instruments used in the study included; the Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale (SEIS), the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Version 2.0, the Adult temperament Questionnaire Short-Form, The Family Environment Scale, and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. These assessments were given to 97 university students. After evaluating the results, it was observed that temperament and trait EI correlated to each other moderately however ability EI did not correlate. When applying the regression analysis to ability EI it was noted that ability EI was not significantly impacted by any study variables (Kathryn Jane Gardner, Pamela Qualter,and HelenWhiteley, 2011) .
The implications for this study do seem to indicate that ability EI is not dependent on the variables of environment, however, it is noted that abiltity EI may be more easily impacted. However the ultimate conclusion of the study is that family environment and childhood trauma have little importance when considering both kinds of EI. Further refinement of the variables and predictors may be required in future research.
In one final study, the connection between Emotional Intelligence and academic achievement was explored. In this case the participants were 565 children between the ages of 7 and 12. The study sought to evaluate the connection between the level of EI, academic achievement, and socialization skills (Mavroveli Stella, Sanchez-Ruiz Maria Jose, 2011) .
In this study, trait EI is considered a distinct personality construct which is measured by self-reporting and something which lies outside the realm of human cognitive ability. The information and research in this field has been carried out largely through self-reporting, which has been criticized for its potential for response bias. This weakness has been countered through incorporating objective criteria in the design of this study (Mavroveli Stella, Sanchez-Ruiz Maria Jose, 2011) .
In this study the authors suggest that the presence of EI alone is not enough to explain increased academic achievement, but that cognitive factors along with the presence of trait EI should be taken together. The suggestion is that a personality construct and performance related outcomes would be similar to any other personality trait. The authors argue that the crux of the problem is the lack of certainty whether doing well academically is the result of emotion related self-perceptions, or whether doing well academically produces an emotion related positive self-image (Sanchez-Ruiz, 2011).
The authors conclude that the results of their study have indicated that trait EI is unrelated to the process of cognitive ability. They further argue that positive self-perceptions could motivate adaptive behavior and influence peer evaluations of social performance.
The articles reviewed above present an array of differing opinions, models and methods for studying the impact of Emotional Intelligence. The models vary, as well as the assumption about what Emotional intelligence really is. In the end the review of EI literature presents the problem of ensuring that different authors are talking about the same thing when they use the same words. Differing models indicate different outcomes based on differing assumptions and definitions. It is critical that we understand what is meant by the term Emotional Intelligence.
Reference List
Elizabeth J. Austin, Donald H. Saklofske, & Sarah M. Mastoras. (2010). Emotional intelligence, coping and exam-related stress in Canadian undergraduate students. The Australian Journal of Pyschology, 62(1), 42-50.
H.C. Janeke, A. Murphy. (2009). The Relationship Between Thinking Styles and Emotional Intelligence: an Exploratory Study. South African Journal of Psychology, 39(3), 357-375.
Johnson, Heeyoung Han and Scott D. (2012). Relationship between Students'Emotional Intelligence, Social Bond,and Interactions in Online Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 15(1), 78-89.
Kathryn Jane Gardner, Pamela Qualter,and HelenWhiteley. (2011). Developmental correlatesof emotional intelligence: Temperament, family environment, and childhood trauma. Australian Journal of Psychology, 63, 75-82.
Peters, M. A. (2007). Kinds of Thinking, Styles of Reasoning. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 350-363.
Sanchez-Ruiz, Stella Mavroveli and Maria Jose. (2011). Trait emotional intelligence influences on academic achievement and school behaviour. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 112-134.
